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Sanssouci Castle, Potsdam                                                                                                                                              

Absolutism (1648-1789)

World

1643-51, UK
Civil War

The Early Age of Absolutism is dominated by Louis  XIV of France  (1643-1715), the "Sun King" . Ludwig XIV  had such great power that he could have well said  "The State  am I". (L'état, c'est moi). An Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire could not have said that about himself. Whereas in other parts of Europe nation-states had emerged, for instance France and England, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of some 300 sovereign principalities. Some of them were ruled by bishops or other high clergymen, these are called ecclesiastical states, for instance the Archbishop of Cologne was at the same time Prince-Elector. 

1653-1660, UK
Oliver Cromwell
Lord Protector

Friedrich Wilhelm (Frederick William), Margrave of Brandenburg (1644-1686), created the basis for the rise of Brandenburg-Prussia. During the first years, he ruled from Cleves, and he had not given up to obtain not only Cleves and Mark, but the whole former Duchy of Jülich-Cleves-Berg for the Hohenzollern dynasty. 

1657/1660 

Ruling over a poor country largely devastated by the  Thirty Years' War, with no standing army,  he pursued a seesaw foreign policy between the big powers: Louis XIV of France, the Empire under Leopold I, Sweden, Poland and the Netherlands. Treaties were concluded and broken. Friedrich Wilhelm managed to get rid of his obligations as a vassal to the Polish King and gain full sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia, the later East Prussia, a territory that lay outside the  Holy Roman Empire. 

1660, UK 
Monarchy restored,
Charles II. Stuart

1660, England 
Great Fire of London

Brandenburg has a long tradition of religious tolerance. Already under Friedrich Wilhelm,  Calvinists and Lutherans prosecuted in other parts of the Empire found a new home in Brandenburg-Prussia. To rebuild his country, he recruited craftsmen, farmers and specialists from abroad. The Elector, Calvinist himself, mediated between Calvinist  immigrants and his predominantly Lutheran subjects, and ordered both confessions to be tolerated.  After 1670, also Jewish families from Vienna,  expelled from the country by Emperor Leopold I, came to Brandenburg. 

In his struggle to obtain predominance in Europe, Louis XIV of France repeatedly imposed wars on his neighboring countries. He planned his wars in his working room (cabinet, therefore the name "cabinet war"), and then launched set out his mercenary armies, first against the Spanish Netherlands (War of Devolutions), 

Franco-Dutch war. Louis XIV seemed not to care about his own people's pain and hunger (a theme in "The Man in the Iron Mask").

1685, France
Revokation of the edict of Nantes

1688, UK 
Glorious Revolution, William III

1689, UK
Bill of Rights

War of Reunions, French troops occupy Strasbourg.

In spring 1683, an enormous Turkish army under Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa marched on Vienna, shortly after the city was surrounded. More than once Louis XIV had led the Sultan know that the Emperor and Vienna had no help to expect from him. Eight weeks the soldiers and citizens of Vienna fought bravely. The city seemed almost lost, when finally the relief army under the Polish King Jan Sobieski and Duke Charles of Lorraine arrived and defeated the Turkish Army on September 12, 1683 in the battle of Kahlenberg. In the relief army  fought many men from all parts of the country, among them the famous Prince Eugene of Savoy. But also a Master Croy, who had with his family  had claimed the Drachenfels Castle; he fell in this battle. 

At the end of his  life  Friedrich Wilhelm could welcome some 20.000 Huguenot immigrants from France in Brandenburg (Edict of Potsdam 1685).  He was later surnamed the "Great Elector" for his achievements: he had rebuilt his country and formed a strong standing army to protect it, and he had also secured his own rule and imposed absolute monarchy in his lands.

1688-1697, Europe

War of the Palatinate Succession

After the death of the Elector Palatinate, Louis claimed the Palatinate crown in the name of his sister-in-law, Liselotte, but against her will. Shortly after, French troops occupied the Palatinate and neighboring regions. Now almost all European rulers and many German princes joined forces against France. 

In the Archbishopric of Cologne, however, Louis XIV. had an ally. His candidate for the Archbishop's position got more votes than the Emperor's, Joseph Clemens of the Wittelsbach family. Immediately he moved into his residence at Bonn and had French troops march into the region. Bonn and Siegburg were occupied.

That brought Emperor Leopold I and the Pope into the arena, and with their help Joseph Clemens became Archbishop on September 20, 1688 

1689, Rhineland

Königswinter and other villages go up in flames

On March 23, 1689, about 600 French mercenaries crossed the Rhine river; Oberkassel and Dollendorf were sacked, plundered and burnt. Then the marched  to Königswinter, and destroyed almost the entire town, shortly after also the nearby village of Rhöndorf. Then finally the soldiers from Brandenburg under Elector Friedrich III were there and chased  the French mercenaries. In the fortified city of Bonn, the French could hold out until October 12,1689, then the city was conquered by the Brandenburgers. 

Also in the Palatinate the army of Louis XIV was on the brick of defeat. Before retiring, they plundered and burned down entire villages and cities  When finally peace was made in 1697 in Rijswijk, France did not obtain anything, but large regions in the west of the Empire lay in ashes. 

1707, England/Scotland
Act of Union between England and Scotland

Yet, peace did not last for long. The last King of Spanish Habsburg line had no son and therefore appointed the oldest son of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, as his heir. But the boy died very early and it was never found out why. After the death of the Spanish King, Emperor Leopold I (1658-1705) from the Austrian Habsburgs claimed the Spanish crown for his second son Charles. But also Louis  XIV of France wanted the Spanish world empire and brought his grandson on the Spanish throne. Immediately he had England, the United Netherlands and almost all German princes against him: the War of the Spanish Succession  (1701-1714) broke out. 

1702, Bonn

But Maximilian II. Emanuel of Bavaria and his younger brother,  the Elector-Archbishop Joseph Clemens of Cologne, sided with Louis XIV - they probably hoped to get the Spanish Netherlands (about  today's Belgium) and a king's crown for their family. Thereupon,  Bonn was occupied by imperial troops from Brandenburg. Joseph Clemens fled into exile in France and was outlawed.

The French troops had to confront two military geniuses: Prince Eugene of Savoy and John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough. After years of fighting, Louis  XIV stood at the verge of defeat, his people were in great need and his state was almost ruined. Then a lucky turn saved him: Emperor Leopold  had died in 1705 and his first son and successor, Joseph I. (1705-1711) had outlived him for only six years. 

Now the Emperor's crown should go to Charles, the very Charles whom the Alliance wanted on the Spanish throne. Charles himself would have gladly united both crowns and both Habsburg empires in his hand, just as two hundred years ago his name sake Charles V had. The Alliance, however, had not fought against the impending predominance of France to now tolerate that of Habsburg. 

1714, England 
George of Hanover
King of England

It fell apart and the foreign states made peace with France 1713 in Utrecht. The Spanish crown went to Louis' grandson under condition that France and Spain should never be united in one hand (Bourbon dynasty in Spain, 1700-1808), the Spanish Netherlands fell to Austria.  A year later in Baden and Rastatt peace was made with Charles and the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was crowned Emperor Charles VI. Archbishop-Elector Joseph Clemens got his titles and territories back. 

The War of the Spanish Succession was fought not only in Europe, but also in the colonies overseas. In North America, the conflict is referred to as Queen Anne's War. 

The English Queen authorized privateers and corsairs by letters of marque to attack and rob enemy ships during wartime. The captains in the Caribbean made good use of that, among them Captain Hornigold and his officer Mr. Teach, better known as "Blackbeard". After peace was made, he and many other pirates robbed for their own "business", the "golden Age" of piracy had begun.

1707, England/Scotland
Act of Union between England and Scotland

1701-1703, Brandenburg-Prussia

Elector Friedrich III (Frederick) of Brandenburg  had fought in the War of the Palatine Succession on the side of  Emperor Leopold I, but afterwards his demands were turned down in a very arrogant way. When Emperor Leopold I. again needed money and soldiers from Brandenburg for  the War of the Spanish Succession, he got it only in exchange for a king's crown for Friedrich. Back  then, the Elector of Brandenburg-Prussia ruled over the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire, and Eastern Prussia with the capital Königberg, since 1667a sovereign duchy outside the Empire. After long negotiations, the Emperor agreed. Yet, it  had to be "King in Prussia" because another part of Prussia, Western Prussia, still belonged  to Poland.  

On January 18, 1701 Friedrich  crowned himself in Königsberg. Over the years, the state of Brandenburg-Prussia became commonly known as "Prussia". The King loved splendor and pomp, although he could not afford it, but he also sponsored orphanages and education for the poor. 

1714, England 
George of Hanover
King of England

1713-1740, Prussia

Things at the court in Berlin changed drastically when Friedrich Wilhelm I (Frederick William),  the "Soldier King", ascended to the throne. Entire castles and much precious inventory were sold, the famous amber room was offered as a gift to Tsar  Peter the Great, hoping to win him as an ally. These drastic measures were absolutely essential because the state was highly indebted. The Soldier King's main aim was to create a mighty standing army, and indeed his army, drilled to perfection, become one of the most powerful in Europe. 

East Prussia had been devastated during the Thirty Years War and in 1708 by the Bubonic plague. The King, a deeply religious Calvinist, worked relentlessly to rebuild the country, he had marshes drained, recruited peasants, craftsmen and also Protestant refugees to settle in Prussia, he established primary schools  and built up an efficient administration. The "Dutch Quarter" in Potsdam was built for immigrants from Holland. At the end of his reign, there was a large surplus in his treasury. 

Emperor Karl VI (Charles, 1711-1740)  had no son, and that means no male heir. He feared that the Habsburg lands would fall apart after his death or even be claimed by other rulers. Therefore, he passed a law according to which his daughter Maria Theresia would inherit the Habsburg lands. But it took him many years of negotiating and many compromises until the the foreign rulers agreed to the Pragmatic sanction, and even then, he could not feel safe. 

1726-1728, Prussia 

Throughout his reign, Friedrich Wilhelm I was a loyal vassal to Emperor Karl VI.  He had agreed to the Pragmatic sanction, and in return the Emperor had promised, in two treaties, that the Duchy of Berg would soon fall to Brandenburg-Prussia. But Friedrich Wilhelm did not realize that the Emperor was not honest with him, again and again the Vienna diplomats sabotaged his plans and intrigued against him even his favorite evening get together, the "Tabakkollegium". 

1730, Prussia 

The hardworking "Soldier King" was a tyrant, and that also in his family. Over years, he mistreated his eldest son and crown prince Friedrich (Frederick). When the prince could not endure it any longer and attempted to flee, he was caught, arrested for desertion and court-martialed.  One of the prince's closest friends, Hans Hermann von Katte, was executed before his eyes. A traumatic experience that changed him forever. 

1738, Vienna 

Karl VI did not intend to keep his promise about the Duchy of Berg, he did not want Prussia to gain more ground in the West. After the other foreign rulers had agreed to the Pragmatic sanction, he gave the Duchy of Berg to another dynasty.  Friedrich Wilhelm I was distressed, but he did not take up arms. 

The year 1740 saw a change of generations in Berlin and in Vienna.

Friedrich Wilhelm I, the "Solder King", was succeeded by his son, Friedrich II (Frederick), later surnamed "the Great". Friedrich was a gifted musician and composer, his favorite instrument was the transversal flute. Friedrich was influenced by the ideas of Enlightenment, he corresponded with the great French philosopher Voltaire and had just  finished his "Anti-Macchiavel", a writing in which he characterized his ideal prince as a dutiful and peace loving man. 

At the beginning of his reign, he abolished torture and the most cruel punishments, and he also promoted religious tolerance. But those around him who had taken him for a mere aesthetic who could be easily manipulated had a rude awakening. Friedrich made it clear from the very beginning that  he would not allow anyone to interfere with his decisions, and that he wanted power and glory for Prussia and for himself. 

In October of the same year, Karl VI suddenly died, leaving his crown to his daughter Maria Theresia (1740-1780). But immediately, the rulers of Bavaria and Saxony, married to Habsburg princesses, claimed her lands for themselves. 

While others still negotiated, Friedrich set the scene. In December 1740, the Prussian army, led by himself, invaded Silesia, one of the most prospering Austrian provinces. The fact that the Prussian army almost overran enemy troops must have been a shock to the other European powers. In two wars, Friedrich conquered Silesia from Austria. 

Having achieved his aim, he returned home. In only two years (1745-1747), his summer castle Sanssouci was built in Potsdam, according to his plans. Here he lived "without worries" with his beloved greyhounds, his books and his music, far away from things and people imposed on him - including his wife. 

17.. USA 
French and Indian War

1756, Vienna

Yet, Friedrich had underestimated Maria Theresia and Austria. The Queen was not willing to give in.  Her brilliant foreign minister brought together a coalition of Russia, Saxony and even France, Habsburg's enemy over centuries.  Now  Friedrich's sneers against three mighty women of his time - Elizabeth Petrowna, Russian Empress, Madame Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV of France, and Maria Theresia - came back to haunt him. Only England supported Prussia by giving financial support, mainly because at the same time England fought a colonial war against France in North America and India. 

1756, Prussia

As he felt his neighbors plotting an attack, Friedrich decided to strike first again. At the end of August 1756, Prussian troops occupied Saxony, what again was a breach of law. Habsburg, France, Russia and Sweden allied against him, to do away the Kingdom of Prussia and downgrade Friedrich to a mere Margrave of Brandenburg. 

1756-1763, Europe

The Seven Years' War (1756-63) broke out. It raged terribly and cost about 900,000 to 1,400.000 lives. Friedrich had glorious victories that made him very popular, but also terrible defeats that made him wish a bullet would hit him,  and consider suicide. Yet, he continued defending his realm. 

When England stopped her financial support in 1761, Friedrich and Prussia seemed lost. Only a miracle could save him. Then in January 1762, the Russian Empress Elizabeth died. Her successor, Peter III, admired Friedrich greatly and immediately ordered his armies back.  Finally Friedrich could defeat the Austrians, the "Miracle of the house of Brandenburg" had happened. 1763 peace was made in Hubertusburg. Prussia was granted Silesia, and more than that, Prussia had become the fifth big power in Europe. In return, Frederick agreed to vote for Maria Theresia's son Joseph in the Electoral College. 

As mentioned above, the Seven Years' War was a world war. In North America, English and and French colonies fought against each other,  in India the trading companies. After France was defeated, peace was made 1763 in the Treaty of Paris. For the moment, England was the winner and became the leading colonial power. 

1775, USA 
Battle of Lexington and Concord
 War of Independence

1776, USA 
Declaration of
Independence

Yet, that did not last for long. When England decided to cover the high cost of war by raising more  taxes from her American colonies, the conflict began, "no taxation without representation". Shortly after, the War of Independence began.  At the side of George Washington fought a general of the Prussian army, the famous Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben.  

The "Old Fritz"

Often he burrowed into his library in Sanssouci. Between the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War, he had spent many happy years here, philosophizing with intellectual giants and making music.  But now he was lonely, only his beloved greyhounds and some few confidants offered comfort and consolation.  Nonetheless, he had a big splendor castle built in  Park Sanssouci, the New Palais. It was meant to be a "fanfaronade", an architectonic bang: Watch out, Prussia is a mighty state to count with. 

In the following years, Friedrich fulfilled his duties as "first servant of the state", working relentlessly and travelling through his country like his father had, feeling responsible for everything. More than 300,000  immigrants form other parts of Europe came to Prussia. The King had large regions drained to gain new lands for farming, and he introduced potatoes to Prussia, and that helped greatly during times of famine. That is why you may find on his grave plate in Sanssouci not only flowers, but also potatoes. The social barriers, however,  remained and were even tightened. Although Friedrich would have gladly eased the peasants' burden -  if push came to shove, he gave in to the nobility. Only on his own lands he could disburden them.

1772, Poland

In the First Partition of Poland with Austria and Russia (1772), Friedrich took Western Prussia. Now, all areas of Prussia were sovereign territory under his rule, and he could call himself "King of Prussia". 

From this position of strength, he gave up Prussia's claim on the Duchy of Berg. 

1780, England 
Industrial Revolution
begins

1783
Treaty of Paris:
USA recognized as
independent nation

1788, England 
First convict ships
to Australia

That was a world Friedrich II could not relate to. On the stage of his marvelous theater in the New Palais in Sanssouci, only oeuvres from France or Italy were performed. His famous German speaking contemporaries counted for nothing  - no Goethe, no Lessing, no Händel, Haydn or Mozart. No Kant either. 

On  August 17, 1786, Friedrich died in his armchair in his study in the palace of Sanssouci. Today, his grave is besides the grave of his beloved greyhounds on the terrace of Sanssouci.