"Los von Berlin!" Separatism in the Rhineland 1918/1919

Already on November 10, 1918, the day after the proclamation of the republic, some Center Party Politicians suggested seceding the Rhineland from Berlin. Back then, many people feared that the Rhineland would be annexed by France, and that the revolution in Berlin and other big cities would lead to a Socialist overthrow  as in Russia. Today historians agree that the danger of a Bolshevik revolution was over-estimated, but back  people were in a state of shock and could not know.  Moreover, many Catholic Rhinelanders resented the dominance of Protestant Prussia and her Junkers, the Kulturkampf of the Bismarck era was not forgotten, and finally they insisted on the Rhinelanders' right to self-determination within a federate state. 

Many of these thoughts were expressed by  Konrad Adenauer (1876-1967), since 1917 mayor of Cologne. On February 1,  1919, he spoke on an assembly of Rhenish delegates to the National Assembly in Weimar, to the Prussian State Assembly and  mayors  from the occupied territories. If Prussia was broken up and her Western provinces were joined into a "West German Republic", he said, the might of the old, "belligerent cast" (in German: "kriegslüsterne  Kaste") that had dominated Prussia would be broken. Since then, Adenauer has been a highly controversial man. Yet, we have to listen carefully. Adenauer spoke of seceding the Rhineland from Prussia, not from Germany -- what he wanted was a West German federate state within Germany, as we have today the federal states Northrhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse, Brandenbug and Berlin. Separating the Rhineland from Germany against the law or even making it a part of France were not options for him. 

Others did not think the same way. A group around the former attorney Dr. Hans Adam Dorten (1880-1963) in Wiesbaden, Hesse, did not shy away from unlawful  actions.  On June 1, 1919,  Dorten and his followers occupied the Government building in Wiesbaden, supported by the French occupation troops. Dorten proclaimed the Rhenish Republik within the German Empire. Yet, strikes and mass demonstrations against him forced them to withdraw already four days later, under French protection again. 

1919-1932, Prussia

Emperor Wilhelm II. had abdicated not only as Emperor Germany, but also as King of Prussia. What would become of Prussia?

Free State of Prussia 

Many people, not only Socialists, thought that Prussia, so far the epitome of the authoritarian state, would be too great a burden for the young republic. There were serious plans to break up Prussia into smaller states. But Prussia prevailed and became by far the largest state of the Weimar Republic. Particularly the Social Democrats around Otto Braun considered it their duty to remodel Prussia into a democratic state that could support the young Weimar Republic. Prussia was proclaimed a "Free State" (i.e. a republic) within the new Weimar Republic and in 1920 received a democratic constitution. Finally, the restrictive three class voting system was abolished, from now on all adult men - and women! - could vote on equal terms.

The National Assembly in Weimar

In the elections for the National Assembly on January 19, 1919, women could vote for the first time. The SPD emerged as the strongest faction and built a coalition with the Center Party / Bavarian People's Party and the German Democratic Party, the so-called "Weimar Coalition" of 1919. 

On February 6, 1919, the National Assembly met in Weimar, and this venue has given the first German Republic its name. On February 11, Friedrich Ebert (SPD) was elected first Reichspräsident (president). On February 13, the Provisional Government assigned its authority to the first democratic government under Chancellor Philipp Scheidemann.  On August 11, 1919 the Weimar constitution came into effect. It was considered the most free in the world, and it granted those freedoms also to its fiercest enemies.  

The Reichspräsident was directly elected by the people and had a very strong position. He appointed and dismissed the Chancellor and his Government, he could dissolve the Reichstag, and he had the supreme command of the armed forces, the Reichswehr. Moreover, article 49 enabled him to issue emergency decrees. For the first time, the national flag was black-red-gold.

In the Ruhr Area,  civil unrest and general strikes again the Kapp putsch grew into civil war. At the very same day. a  "Red Ruhr Army"  of 50.000 man formed. Supported by a strike of more than  300.000 miners, they conquered the whole area. In vain Minister of Interior Severing, a brave democrat, struggled for a non-violent settlement. Eventually,  Reichswehr troops and Free Corps crushed the uprising, shooting even wounded persons according to martial law until Reichspräsident Ebert stopped it.

1920, Germany 

The traumatic experiences of the years 1919/1920 left their marks. In the first regular elections in June 1920, the "Weimar Coalition" lost her majority. In the following years, many short lived administrations followed. 

1921, Germany 

132 Milliards Goldmark reparations payments 

At the end of 1922, Germany was late with reparation payments. The French Premier Raymound Poincaré ordered French and Belgian troops, 60,000 to 100,000 men,  to occupy the Ruhr Area and thereby control Germany's center of coal, iron and steel production. 

The German Government called for  passive resistance: orders from the occupying forces were not fulfilled, general strikes paralyzed industry, administration and transportation, and also branches of industry depending on the Ruhr Area were brought to a a standstill. Against all appeals, also increasingly acts of sabotage and attacks on the occupying forces occurred. More than 100 people lost their lives. 

Eventually, the passive resistance turned out to be a loss-making deal for the Poincaré administration. On the other hand, it almost ruined German economy and demanded great sacrifices. About 150,000 people were punished or even exiled, about two millions people had no more income. The benefits paid to those families swallowed enormous sums that the crisis ridden young Weimar Republic could not raise. The Government did not know any other way then to print more money.  Also states, cities and even companies printed money. The more money circulated, the less it was worth, and the already existing inflation got out of control, eventually prices would raise several times a day. 

Spring 1923, Rhineland

With the occupation of the Ruhr Area, tensions between the French troops and the locals aggravated, in Bonn about 350 people where exiled. At the end of February / beginning of March, the French took over the American  area of control. On February  25, 1923,  Königswinter was occupied by French troops. Many young men who had been exiled and now lived from "Ruhr area subsidy" joined separatist groups. 

September 1923, Germany

The value of the Goldmark had fallen into a bottomless abyss and  economy had collapsed. It was irresponsible to continue the passive resistance, although it was an unpopular decision. On September 1923, the new chancellor Dr. Gustav Stresemann called an end to the passive resistance and imposed emergency rule on the whole country. In this desperate situation, the Government in Berlin thought about separating the Rhineland, at least for a while, from Germany, and turning over responsibility to the occupying forces.

October 1923, Germany

Communists, supported by Moscow, built up a irregular army of some  50,000-60,000 men, to go for a "Red October" in Germany. In Saxony and Thuringia, even Social Democrats and trade unionists joined them, to stop the "March on Berlin" planned by right-wing extremists in Bavaria. Moreover, Communists were taken into the SPD State Governments of Saxony and Thuringia. Reichspräsident Ebert sent Reichswehr troops to Dresden and Weimar, heavy fights occurred and many people lost their lives. Finally the left-wing army was broken up, and the Communist ministers had to go. 

October 1923, Rhineland

As the situation in the occupied Rhineland deteriorated more and more, the separatist groups became more radical.  On August 15, 1923, several groups joined forces in the "Vereinigten Rheinischen Bewegung" under chairman Franz Josef Matthes.  In some Rhenish cities the separatists launched their attacks  On October 21 in Aachen, on October 24, 1923 in Bonn, on October 25 in Koblenz. Here, the "Rhenish Republic" was proclaimed. 

On October 25, the separatists "raided" Königswinter, as the local newspapers reported. That choice of words is understandable: a group of mostly non-locals marched into town, occupied the city hall by force of arms, and plagued the people - and all that under protection of the French soldiers.

November 1923, Rhineland

After the Weimar Republic had survived the year of crisis 1923, it was granted a short time of economic recovery and political stability. 

An international committee worked out a plan for the reparations to be paid by Germany, it is referred to as Dawes Plan after its American chairman Charles G. Dawes. Germany was obliged to pay enormous sums every year that should increase in 1928, that way the interests of the Allied were covered. But it also took a bit of pressure of the Weimar Republic, Germany was granted large foreign loans and the Allies' right on sanctions was limited. Moreover, the French eventually accepted the Dawes Plan and withdrew from the occupied areas in July and August 1925. 

That way, German economy gradually recovered and in 1928 reached the production level of 1913. Also a lot was done for people: Unemployment insurance, 8 hour days, better protection for working youngsters and mothers, paid vacation, new flats to live in and education benefits, employees' councils to represent employees' interests. 

Briand and Stresemann

As to foreign policy, these years are marked by Aristide Briand on the French and Gustav Stresemann on the German side. Both strove for  understanding instead of eternal enmity.  In October 1925, the  Treaty of Locarno was concluded by which Germany recognized its borders with France and Belgium according to the Treaty of Versailles, voluntarily relinquished Alsace-Lorraine and accepted that the Rhineland would remain a demilitarized area forever.  Britain, Italy and Belgium would assist France should German troops march into the demilitarized Rhineland. 

In turn, Germany regain freedom of action, was protected against French attacks on the Rhine and Ruhr area and could look forward to be accepted into the community of nations soon again. In July 1925, the French troops began to withdraw from the Ruhr Area.

1930, Rhineland

The last Allied troops left Germany, five years earlier than stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles, as an answer to the policy of reconciliation under the Stresemann administration.

1930, Germany

On March 29, 1930, Reichspräsident Hindenburg appointed the finance expert Heinrich Brüning (Center Party) Chancellor. For Brüning, the only way that Germany could survive financially was to drastically cut state expenditures, including cuts in the social sector that would effect people greatly. But he had no majority in the Reichstag, and his plan was turned down. To push it through nonetheless, he submitted it  to Reichspräsident Hindenburg who passed it as emergency decree according to article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. Throughout his chancellorship, Brüning ruled by emergency decrees, which meant that the Chancellor depended on the Reichspräsident's trust him, not the Reichstag's, so de facto the parliamentarian democracy had ended. Brüning's chancellorship is referred to as a "presidential cabinet". 

The extremists become stronger and stronger, among them Adolf Hitler and National Socialist movement. Hitler’s party, the NSDAP, had promised to reduce unemployment and do something against the Treaty of Versailles with was perceived as shameful. The movement was anti-Semitic, and anti-Communist, and planned to do away with democracy. The Reichstag general elections of September 1930 resulted in an overwhelming victory for the Nazi Party. Now the  democratic parties tolerated Brüning's policy, to avoid new elections that would probably  bring even more votes for the extremists. 

1931, Germany

In July 1931, one of the biggest German banks collapsed, and in early 1932 the number of unemployed rose to more than 6,000,000. Brüning struggled to alleviate the burden of reparation payments, and indeed in 1931 the American President Hoover passed a memorandum postponing reparation payments for one year.

1932, Germany

In March and April 1932, Hindenburg was re-elected Reichspräsident for a second term. In the second round, it was between him and Hitler, and since only Hindenburg could defeat Hitler, the Center Party, the Social Democrats and other democratic parties had supported him.

Brüning had made mighty enemies, especially among the landowners in the East, many of them having a lot of influence on Hindenburg. On May 30, 1932. he was dismissed - "hundred meters before the finish", as he said himself, because in 1932 the reparations where reduced to a final payment and afterwards let off.

After his dismissal, Brüning spent many years in the United Kingdom and in the USA. He taught political sciences at the Harvard University, and died in in 1970 in Norwich, Vermont.  Still today, Brüning is a controversial figure. 

Franz von Papen, a staunch Conservative, was appointed Chancellor. 

However, von Papen could not win Hitler over and most parties opposed him, so he had the Reichstag dissolved and called for new elections. In the Reichstag general elections of July 1932, the Nazi Party became the largest party, also the Communists had major gains. Together, the anti-democratic parties of the right and left were now able to hold the majority of seats in Parliament.  Hitler demanded the chancellorship for himself, but was rejected by Hindenburg in August 1932. Since there still was no majority in the Reichstag for any government, it was dissolved again.